This article is written by Ms Sankalpita Pal, who is currently pursuing BBA.LL.B (Hons) from Symbiosis Law School, Pune. This article attempts to provide a detailed analysis of the types of police technology in the US and then comparative analysis of the same.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Over the past few decades, various technological advancements have been implemented at the policing organisation. This was mainly done to improve operational efficiency and outcomes, especially in times of diminished resources. The public is also well aware of the use of technology in crime prevention and has increased its scrutiny of law enforcement activity. However, a lot of information and technological advancements are still underway and out of the public eye. Different types of technology are used by police organisations across the world, selection and implementation such technology varies from country to country.
One question that props up is why is there a need to study about the implementation of technology in police organisations and law enforcement units? The answer is simple if citizens are aware of the changes in technology, it will become easier for them to hold the government accountable. A comparative analysis of the technology commonly used by the law enforcement sector in India and the USA will provide an insight as to how different a first world and third world country actually is in this aspect.
This article will provide an overview of the current technological implementation status of both India and the USA and then provide a comparative analysis along with recommendations on reforms.
Prevalence of Police technology on a national level in the USA
On a general note, USA’s Law Enforcement Agencies utilise technology a lot. In fact, it has been observed that there has been a strong association between technology and policing strategy. However, at present police agencies at a national level are not making any decisions to acquire and implement new technology-based equipment that could be needed to execute dominant policing philosophies. There are a constellation of factors that needs to be considered before a new technology is adopted even if the benefits of such a technology is clear on the face of it. Factors like executive staff decisions, community demands & perceived needs felt by the police organisation and most importantly the amount of funding available.
The state and local law enforcement agencies heavily rely on technology. Most common types of technology utilised are car cameras, information-sharing platforms. Interestingly they also use social media as a tool to regulate society. About one-third of small Law enforcement agencies utilise body-worn cameras (BWCs) and geographic information system technology (GIS) along with cell phone tracking software (also known as the investigative case management software). On the other hand, larger agencies were reported to be using the GIS and license plate readers (LPRs). Recently a significant number of large agencies are using predictive analytics software.
Technologies expected to increase in the future
The use of certain technologies by police agencies is expected to increase even more. The common technologies that are already in use across the USA are:
- predictive analytics software
- Body-worn cameras (BWCs)
- Geographic indication System (GIS)
- in-car electronic ticketing.
- The government and the major law enforcement agencies have intentions to acquire next-generation technology related to faster 9-1-1 reach and unmanned aerial vehicles (also known as UAVs) or drones.
Agency decision-making regarding technology acquisition and implementation
It can be said that even though US policing strategies rely heavily on technology, agencies don’t really adhere to new technologies that are coming up in recent years. However, the only sea change in policing strategy is the inclusion of zero-tolerance policing. Larger law enforcement agencies are more open to adopting technology for crime prevention and investigation. In contrast, small agencies are more focussed on professional policing, problem-oriented policing, community policing and zero-tolerance policing and thus, small agencies useless technology.
It is clear that small Law Enforcement Agencies don’t usually adopt technology on the basis of dominant policing strategies or philosophies. The only exception being community policing where agencies use social media. On the other hand, large agencies use technology according to the need of the policing philosophies followed. Large agencies which focus on predictive analytic policing are more likely to adopt license plate readers or LPRs.
Agencies use body-worn cameras or BWCs when their strategies emphasize on hot-spot policing. Geographic Indication System (GIS) is more likely to be used while implementing community policing, hot-spot policing, and offender targeting. LPR and social media use were positively associated with community policing and hot-spot policing.
As a whole, our findings demonstrate that law enforcement technology adoption is often ad hoc and not based on longer-term planning. The tendency to purchase technology without a clear, strategic plan can result in limited integration within the agency and a failure to recognize the primary or secondary benefits of the technology. These factors can lead to disillusionment and a lack of continuation funding for maintaining or updating particular types of technology.
Impact of technology on policing activities in the United States of America
The automated Records Management Systems (RMS) is another technology that has had a great influence on the policing strategies in the US. The computer-aided dispatch (CAD) is also a technology credited for providing assistance to police agencies across the US.
These technologies brought about a fundamental change in professional policing activities such as responding to calls and complaints and organised information management. Both of these technologies complement each other. This technology generates the data on the basis of which other technology applications work such as GIS and hot-spot policing, location-based information. The identification of and analysis of crime becomes easier via GIS due to the flexible nature of RMS/CAD. Social media helps in community policing during data mining activities. Various officers have also claimed that the Body-worn cameras (BWCs) are more effective than the car-mounted cameras.
Technology scaling in India
Before we venture into the technology and policing strategies used in India, a list of the present technology used in India would kickstart the analysis. The following list is not exhaustive.
- Sophisticated National Digital Radio Services in cases of Emergency,
- Side handle Batons,
- Bulletproof Jackets, Mobile Phones,
- Internet,
- Video Conferencing,
- Local and National Networked IT Systems,
- Forensic Checking,
- Automated Video Identification Parades, etc.
Concept of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is a simple concept that has been changing the face of technology used in policing strategies off late. It denotes a range of technologies. It includes technology used for gathering, storing, retrieving, processing, analysing, and transmitting the information. It is an umbrella term that basically includes any type of communication devices such as radios, computer networks, televisions and satellite systems and the various services provided by them. The police organisations in India make effective use of Information and Communication Technology in many of its operations which includes records maintenance, CCTV surveillance technology etc. Another good example of ICT used by police is that it is used to control traffic through speed cameras, license plate readers (LPRs). The ICT facilitates the police to catch up with things and incidents that may miss the human eye. Thus, it is important to discuss elaborately the role of Information and Communication Technology in police organisations.
Role of ICT in a Police organisation
There are 2 broad types of police branches:
- The technology used by the Police
- Prevention of Abuse of Technology by the Police
The major Information and Communication Technologies that the Indian Police is using today can be evaluated as follows:
- CCTVs:
It stands for Closed Circuit Television; are one of the most important devices used by the police. It is convenient to use and is easily accessible. In fact, it is one of the most easily accessible modes of ICTs. Its recordings are direct proof and can be produced as concrete evidence in a Court of Law in case of trial. It essentially is used to transmit electronic signals to a specific place on a limited set of monitors. It is sometimes used in combination with other devices in order to penalise criminals.
- Radio Frequency Identification (RFID):
RFID is a wireless method of transferring data (via electromagnetic waves), for the purposes of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects. This technology is used by police authorities in order to prevent movement of unauthorised materials. This way transportation systems can be verified for the sake of public safety.
- Electronic Breath Alcohol Test:
The electronic breath alcohol test device or a breathalyser is also another important device. This ICT is used to prevent drunk driving. It is being rampantly used across the world. Drunk driving leads to rash and negligent driving, this ICT helps in preventing such accidents by estimating the blood alcohol content in the driver’s body. Rash driving or drunk driving can lead to fatal accidents. Such devices are used on highways or accident-prone areas by Home guards (who are stationed at posts where such checking goes on).
- Global Positioning System (GPS):
It is simply a navigation system. This system provides a way of location tracking of a device and provides information (and time) in all weather conditions, anywhere on the Earth. It is facilitated by GPS satellites. GPS facilitates the police to track criminals by tracking their mobile location. The police can also conduct raids on the basis of the locational information. Locational information can help the police in investigations and to conduct sting operations.
- Geographic Information System (GIS):
GIS is a system that is designed to capture, store, manage and analyze all types of geographical data (spatial). GIS refers to the academic discipline that deals with the study of geographic information or Geoinformatics. Spatial data infrastructure has no restrictive boundaries. Both GIS and GPS are closely related in terms of technology layout and it helps in tracking criminals by determining their location (coordinates).
- Mobile Printers:
This is a very useful ICT. This device helps in printing prima facie photographs at the crime scene. This helps the police capture the visual evidence that may get destroyed after a lapse of time.
Thus, it is evident that police use technology reduces their workload, risk management and law enforcement. Recently police organisations in India are using sensitizing programmes about technology and other software in-service training.
Technologies developed by IIT Bombay
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay has come up with new technologies which may be adopted in the coming years by Indian police organisations. Some are already in use whereas some are in trial.
- Robotics & Autonomous Vehicles
- Explosive Detector
- Geo-target localization
- Night Vision: Long-range surveillance
Prospects of crime prevention using technology in India
Elaborating on the other types of technology used by Indian Police organisations for crime prevention. They are as follows:
- Police-Public Interface:
ICTs help in building a proper interface for the public to engage with the Police. In other words, the information manifested by the ICTs can be used to detect information and prevent crime. Police are meant to protect the property of the public. Therefore, for the complaints of the public to reach the police an effective interface is needed in order to integrate the interest of the public and the duty owed by the police to them. Thus, the basic function of ICT is to create an interface that would facilitate the police to view information regarding the status of complaints. The public can also provide feedback on the services of the police. The use of ICT helps in the reduction of unnecessary paperwork by gathering all kinds of information in a single database. With this,
One of the biggest benefits of the use of ICTs is that it creates a level of transparency between the law enforcement system and the public.
- Real-time Information Access:
It basically circumscribes 2 technologies Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). As mentioned above GPS and GIS is used to track positioning and locational coordinates. The information obtained is utilised by police to conduct raids and determine the position of absconding criminals or suspects. GPS and GIS not only generates data but also videos. The information also enhances the ability of the police to coordinate all the activities for better tracking & reporting and action. Thus, the police personnel are able to take action proactively with the help of technology as they are more responsive and the complaints reach them at a faster pace.
- Intelligent Sensors:
Intelligent sensors are another ICT which provides real-time information. It is mainly used for better traffic management. These sensors comprise a camera system which helps in recording video of events. It is a relatively cost-effective technology and helps the police personnel to control the crimes.
- Crime Mapping:
Crime mapping helps in determining patterns of criminal activity. Coloured stick pins appear on various places on a map where an emergency situation has occurred. It can be crime specific for example different colours correspond to different crimes. This approach may seem crude and unreasonable, however, it is very useful. It permitted the police to identify the actual problem areas.
However, there is a problem with regard to crime mapping. Maps sare dimensional and sometimes the actual locations of crime cannot be pinpointed due to overcrowding with pins, especially in cases where minor crimes are occurring. Both the US and India used this technology. However, its use is extremely limited in India and is still pretty nascent in concept.
Technical Police Reforms required in India
- Indian police organisations are in a dire need of technology and must revamp their control rooms. Thus, technological reforms would mean modernization of the control room. When organisations like the Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and System (CCTNS) and National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) are fast-tracked then only new technology can be incorporated into policing strategies.
- The crime patterns are changing day by day and thus the police force needs to keep pace with it. It has been observed that since the advent of the internet newer crimes are taking place. Cybercrimes are on the rise. Thus, in order for police to keep track of such crimes they need to update their skill and technology. Modernization of the control room is inevitable as cybersecurity, cyberterrorism or insurgency can only be prevented only when the police rely on advanced technology that would double-cross the technology utilised by the criminals.
Therefore, in order to achieve the above a lot of funding is required. Technological upgradations would cost a lot as most of it is imported along with the fact that after a technology is updated the officers who would handle it would need training.
- The police control rooms need a unique and integrated emergency number. India already has 112 (single helpline number) and 100 (direct contact to police). However, it is well known that such services are not effective enough as most people are either not aware of the existence of the emergency number or the complaints never get through to the receiving end. This definitely happens due to technical errors.
In order to solve this communication gap, it is recommended that a proper National Emergency Response System (NERS) (a part of the Ministry of Home Affairs) must be operationalized. For example, Madhya Pradesh built a few ‘DIAL 100’ Call Centres. Swift communication interface will facilitate the police to connect with complaints and detect emergency situations much faster.
This system was supposed to become operative by 2012. Later on, the date was extended to 2017. Till date, such centres haven’t been built across India as it initially was supposed to.
- It has been observed that sometimes Departmentalized investigations miss out on taking into consideration a holistic picture. Not only that, but there can also be miscommunication between police stations. This can form advantages for an absconding suspect or criminal. Thus, once again there needs to be an effective way of communication amongst different police organisations or stations.
A single database must be established to which only authorized Central officers (from the IB, RAW, CBI, DRI, and ED, etc.) would have access to. These databases must have organised information on tax infringements, criminal records, immigration records acquittals, petty offenders, locational information etc. Such a grid will immensely help investigators to receive a complete profile of either a potential suspect or even a habitual offender.
- Crime mapping must be made a reality in India. For example, there were news reports on a potential tie-up between Delhi Police and Indian Space Research Organisation or ISRO. they were collaborating to form advanced technology for mapping crimes that would facilitate predictive policing strategies.
- Using technology will supplement manpower.
The reforms outlined will bring about a robust police system. The reforms should be undertaken in a sustained manner in order to keep the police relevant according to the ever-changing needs of society. In 2015 the Model Police Bill was intended to incorporate similar provisions for reform through the amendment of the Model Police Act, 2006.
Comparative Analysis
Most technologies utilised by police organisations in general regardless of it being located in the US or India, are resource-intensive and are pretty expensive. Therefore, it is difficult for police organisations to obtain the kind of funding needed to buy and maintain such technology. This is one of the main reasons as to why the technology used by police organisations are backward.
Modern policing or community policing in the US is a new type of policing that has come up in the past few years due to the increase of popularity of social media. Therefore, many argue that technology today is compromising the legitimacy of the police. There are two sides to this argument. It is possible that police misuses the technology provided to facilitate them by infringing upon the right to privacy of the citizens they are supposed to protect.
The same problems exist in India. Technology is not used competently in India. The lack of funding just contributes to the problem by adding fuel to the fire. Therefore, cyber criminals are getting away with their crimes as the technology that they use are more advanced than the technology that the police use. Therefore, it becomes difficult for the police to detect such criminals due to backdated technology.
It can be said that the level of technology used by the US is better than that of India. Yet Indian police organisations use almost the same kind of technology used in the US. For example audio/visual recordings, most police vehicles are equipped with in-car cameras. Gradually it will become the norm and not just an exception. On the other hand, such technology has been in use for a long time in the US.
Another important difference is that crime mapping is a reality in the US whereas it only exists as an idea in India. For instance, the National Institute of Justice in the U.S. created the Crime Mapping Research Centre (CMRC). Ths centre is dedicated to the promotion of research and training to provide technical assistance to police agencies.
Space technology is used by Crime Mapping Analytics and Predictive System which tackles internal security threats. Police officials are required to be equipped with Personal Digital Assistant Devices that would provide them with easy access to stored data. This system also has a provision for receiving digital messages by converting distress calls thus, providing the police with the locational coordinates using GPS.
If the Indian police use such path-breaking technology, their policing strategies will become more effective. Thus, the Indian police force needs modernised technology in order to meet current and future challenges. There are other ICTs that Indian police forces lack that could otherwise help their policing strategies. They are:
- Crime Intelligence Systems:
At present, every patrol officer is supposed to have a laptop computer in the car that would be in term linked to various databases. The US has provisions for the use of such technology. However, it is not the same in India.
- Centralized Information Storehouse:
The police in the US hold large volumes of data regarding immigration, criminal records, tax infringements etc in one single database with a few exceptions. On the other hand, India doesn’t really have a single database for the same. Most of the information is scattered. This is one of the systems that can be incorporated in the near future in India.
- Geographic Profiling:
Geographic profiling is used to track serial offenders. This system is particularly effective when it is used in combination with databases. It can be used for a range of criminal acts including murder, robbery, rape and even automobile theft.
- Comp-stat:
It is an acronym for computer statistics. There are four essential elements:
- Accurate and timely intelligence.
- Effective tactics.
- Rapid deployment.
- Relentless follow-up and assessment.
It should be noted that the US has a developed intelligence-based computer statistics system. Even genetic reconstruction technology is used to solve crimes and identify absconding criminals. This, of course, is impossible to implement in India as of now as it lacks few of the basic technologies and databases.
Recommendations for Law Enforcement Agencies in the USA
Evidence-based research is needed in policing technology
The US LEAs need to put in great emphasis on evidence-based technology decisions. It is known that law enforcement agencies in the US don’t usually adopt technology according to their policing strategy. Therefore, at least evidence-based research can help in choosing better technology.
Strategic planning must include technology considerations
If a strategic planning process is followed which is otherwise severely overlooked by agencies then better technology can be adopted. In fact, the strategic planning process is an integral factor that may determine the success or failure of technology.
Better collaboration between Decision-makers and technology experts could help in taking better technology decisions
At present, there exists a distinct problem of buy-in and organizational impact. Thus, better collaboration between decision-makers and technology experts would help in a better understanding of the technology itself before it is adopted.
Suggestions for Tech-savvy policing in India
Technology is revolutionising in various aspects. It has also come to bring about a sea change in the policing strategies and is meant to prevent the commission of crimes. It must be kept in mind that the introduction in technology in policing strategies is inclined towards the prevention of crime rather than the prosecution of criminals. Forensic technology is used to assist in the investigation and locational tracking devices are used to conduct raids and determine the coordinates of a potential criminal or the suspected. Certain measures that can be taken are.
- A separate cybercrime unit that would only deal with computer crimes or crimes involving technology and the internet. A team of officers could be specifically trained to handle cybercrime units.
- Cyber Forensic Laboratory with updated machinery and technology is required to detect computer crimes in order to be established in all cities.
- Indian police organisations need to give better training to their officers so that they can handle hi-tech devices.
- Technology is used to reduce the burden on police and assist in the investigation of a crime or crime prevention that would lead to a better police-public relationship. However, it is often seen that most senior officers shy from technology as they are not comfortable using it. Thus, solid training on how to handle such technology would gravely help in the above-mentioned purpose.
- The police organisations need to seriously adopt the upcoming technologies. Some small police branches don’t use the present technology effectively let alone new technology. They need to get over their backwardness to effectively deliver their duties.
- Awareness Programmes on Information technology must be carried on effectively and efficiently in all cities.
Conclusion
Overall, it can be said that technology has had a positive impact on law enforcement agencies in the US. Technology has increased their efficiency, provides faster transmission of data and communication has also become effective which has significantly improved the police-public relationship which is evident from the 9-1-1 emergency services. It has enhanced informational and analytical capacities of agencies. However, it was observed that altogether technology hasn’t really revolutionised or altered policing philosophies and strategies. In fact, it has been felt that due to the lack of collaboration between decision-makers in agencies and technology experts, the technology-related decisions aren’t full proof.
In India on the other hand, the use of technology is pretty new and nascent. An important observation was that even though cyber crimes in India have advanced due to advanced technology, the policing strategies to prevent such crimes aren’t as evolved. Thus, most of the time cyber criminals don’t get caught.
In conclusion, the comparative analysis reveals that India still has a long way to go. It needs more funding to adopt the kind of technologies that would help its policing strategies. The US needs to make Policing strategy-based technology decisions as it would be more cost-effective and the officers could be trained only on specific technologies.
References
- https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/251140.pdf
- https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1291&context=masters_theses
- https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/161559
- https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/Strengthening-Police-Force.pdf
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