This article is written by Bhavyika Jain pursuing BBA.LLB from Symbiosis Law School, NOIDA. It talks about the United Kingdom’s status as a peacemaker and its role in addressing urgent world problems and military conflicts.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The United Kingdom is a sovereign country in northwestern Europe, off the European mainland’s northwestern coast. Over the course of several hundred years, the United Kingdom was founded through a succession of annexations, unions, and separations of constituent countries. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed in 1707 by the Treaty of Union between the Kingdoms of England (which included Wales after its annexation in 1542) and Scotland (which included Wales after its annexation in 1542) to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, followed by their union in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland.
The three mandates for peacekeeping are the host state’s agreement, impartiality, and non-use of force. They are evolving in tandem with these new problems. Today’s peacekeeping missions are “multidimensional” involving military, police, and civilian forces. Many modern conflicts are low-intensity and ad hoc, with no official armies and multiple fighting fictions.
UK’s involvement in UN peacekeeping
The United Kingdom is a key member of the United Nations Security Council and is in charge of writing resolutions on peacekeeping, civilian protection, the Women, Peace and Security Agenda, and specific nation instances such as Somalia, Darfur, and Cyprus. The engagement in UN peacekeeping takes three forms i.e.
- Participation in the Security Council, which establishes peacekeeping missions;
- Providing finance for operations;
- Supplying troops.
Aside from its participation in high-level decision making, the United Kingdom is a major financial contributor to the peacekeeping missions. The United Kingdom, as the fifth-largest contributor, contributes 6.68% of the UN’s overall budget for peacekeeping.
However, the United Kingdom undoubtedly falls short in terms of soldier contributions. Only 286 troops, 5 police officers, no military advisors, and very little military equipment were sent by the UK. The United Kingdom is ranked 50th among peacekeeping providers; a small country like Fiji contributes more than twice as many personnel as the UK, while China, a fellow permanent member of the Security Council, contributes 2183 personnel.
Peacebuilding efforts by the United Kingdom
Since its inception in 1997, the Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs Department of the UK has led the Department for International Development’s (DFID) conflict-related strategy and programming. Conflict analysis is now part of DFID’s geographic departments and country programmes. The UK government recognises that each war is unique, and thus the Department for International Development (DFID) established a “Conflict Assessment Methodology” that has already been applied to 10 conflict scenarios. In 2002, the Conflict Prevention Unit was extended to improve conflict prevention resource management and to help the Foreign and Commonwealth Offices mainstream conflict prevention.
Over the last three years, DFID’s Africa Conflict Unit has increased its staff, largely to assist initiatives under the Africa Conflict Prevention Pool (ACPP). The actions of security and reconciliation are inextricably linked to peacebuilding. Investments in post-conflict socioeconomic and reconstruction projects, on the other hand, almost never indicate a desire to promote peace. As a result, they are unlikely to be assessed for their ability to promote peace. The UK’s emphasis on inter-actor coordination and the UN’s important position imply that the UK is attempting to ensure horizontal consistency among actors.
An overview of the current military conflicts in the UK
The British armed forces, commonly known as Her Majesty’s Armed Forces, are the armed forces in charge of defending the United Kingdom, its overseas territories, and Crown dependencies. They also advocate the United Kingdom’s broader interest, contribute to international peacekeeping efforts, and provide humanitarian assistance. The British Queen, now Queen Elizabeth II, is the Head of the Armed Military, to whom all personnel of the forces swear allegiance. A long-standing constitutional Convention, on the other hand, has vested de facto executive authority in the Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for defense through the use of royal prerogative.
The current ongoing military conflict taking place is the Mali conflict where the UK, being an essential part of the UN peacekeeping mission has decided to help Mali. The Sahel crisis will approach its eleventh year in 2021. In the middle of a protracted conflict, each country has suffered different patterns of violence and transformations, notwithstanding the crisis’ international dimension. The trends of violence in Niger, Burkina Faso, and Mali are examined.
It closes with a look at the Sahel as a whole. In the face of military pressure in the tri-state border region, both the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) and the Al Qaeda-affiliated Jama’at Nusrat Al Islam Wal Muslimin (JNIM) have shifted their efforts to geographic areas beyond the immediate reach of external forces, (or Liptako-Gourma). Jihadist militant groups have been able to broaden their scope of activity, reassert their authority, remobilize, and earn money to rebuild as a result of their renewed engagement in local conflicts. This is evident in the Tillaberi and Tahoua regions of Niger, as well as the eastern parts of Burkina Faso and central Mali.
Niger is frequently thought to be less affected by armed groups than Mali and Burkina Faso. However, the country faces a number of difficulties. Boko Haram insurgency in the Lake Chad Basin, ISGS-led Sahelian insurgency in northern Tillaberi, and JNIM operations in southwestern Tillaberi are among them. ISGS is responsible for 66 percent of all deaths from organised political violence in Niger in 2021, and around 79 percent of all deaths from violence directed at the civilians. Communities are becoming more resistant to the predatory collection of “zakat,” or alms, which is a religious obligation in Islam but is utilised by ISGS as a pretext for extortion and cattle theft.
Violence broke out in a number of other places, including the Djibo region, where the situation had remained reasonably calm since the last big attack on the military camp built in Gaskindé in September 2020. Tensions between ethnic Fulani and Mossi villages in Kobaoua and Namssiguia erupted between late February and early March 2021, when JNIM and volunteer fighters carried out a series of tit-for-tat attacks.
In the village of Kodyel, in the Foutouri area, JNIM militants slaughtered nearly thirty residents, including VDP, in May 2021. The attack was most likely in retaliation for VDP mobilisation and abuses against the Fulani people. A similar massacre in the neighbouring town of Hantoukoura in December 2019, which murdered 14 Christian worshippers, was reportedly prompted by the villagers’ sympathy for the Koglweogo.
These attacks demonstrate once again how abuse and cruelty by all armed parties involved in the conflict fuels cycles of violence with ever-deadlier retaliation. On the 5th of June 2021, a massacre in the town of Solhan killed roughly 160 people, making it the bloodiest attack in Burkina Faso since the insurgency began. The attack has not been claimed by any group; instead, JNIM has denied responsibility and condemned the attack.
Due to the Malian armed forces’ current operational weakness, the Malian state is unable to handle the multiple flashpoints in central Mali and the militant advance in the southern provinces. Following a second military-led coup in May 2021, nine months after the first in August 2020, disrupted politics in Bamako have strained Mali-France relations and led to disharmony in the strategic military cooperation. As a result, French President Emmanuel Macron has threatened to pull the country’s troops out of Syria. France also halted joint military operations and collaboration with Mali, for the time being, depriving Mali of critical air cover and intelligence assets.
As a part of the UN’s peacekeeping mission in Mali, 300 UK troops have arrived, mostly from the Light Dragoons and the Royal Anglian Regiment, and backed by specialised crafts from throughout the armed forces. The UK Taskforce will provide a highly specialised reconnaissance capability, conducting patrols to gather intelligence and engage with the local population in order to assist the UN in responding to the challenges posed by violent extremism and poor governance. Over 14,000 peacekeepers from 56 nations make up the UN Mission in Mali, which seeks to assist peace efforts, facilitate security sector reform, protect civilians, and promote human rights.
The United Kingdom and Afghanistan
The other military conflict in which the UK was a part is with Afghanistan. The United Kingdom and Afghanistan have a bilateral relationship. Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, Britain launched its latest war in Afghanistan. It lasted 13 years, ending on October 26, 2014, when the final combat soldiers left the country. The conflict in Afghanistan lasted three prime ministers’ terms and claimed the lives of 453 British troops and thousands of Afghans. What was achieved after 13 years of conflict, including eight years of intense battle in Helmand, is still up for debate.
The British campaign’s legacy is more difficult to assess. The British strategy was never quite clear. The efforts of the Provincial Reconstruction Teams to develop Helmand’s economic infrastructure were intermingled with operations to clear the towns of insurgents.
Schools, hospitals, roads, reservoirs, and power generating were built to encourage Afghans to invest financially. Agricultural projects were also prioritised in order to entice farmers to grow non-opium crops. Despite large-scale operations aimed at driving rebels out of Helmand, combat remained intense. In the United Kingdom, public opinion was growing hostile to the war. The British began investing extensively in the training and mentoring of the Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police in order for them to assume greater responsibility for the security situation in Helmand and throughout the country.
International legal perspective with respect to armed conflicts
When there is fighting between states or long-term armed violence between governmental authority and organised armed groups or only organised armed organisations, an armed conflict occurs. When one state utilises military force against another state or states, it is called an international armed conflict. Even if there is no armed resistance to the occupation, the phrase applies to all circumstances of total or partial military occupation. It no longer matters whether the parties involved regard themselves as at war with one another or how they describe the fight. When active hostilities or territorial occupation cease, an international armed war is said to be over.
Non-international armed conflicts, often known as internal armed conflicts, occur within a country’s borders and do not involve foreign military forces. For instance, two or more armed factions battling within a state, but without the presence of official soldiers. Specific legal provisions apply to this form of conflict. When the internal opposition is better organised in terms of command and control of territory and thus capable of carrying out continuous and concerted military operations and enforcing the law on its own, slightly different laws apply, but only if government forces are involved.
International organisations such as the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, and the International Committee of the Red Cross play a variety of important roles in armed conflicts, including improving communication between opposing forces, facilitating humanitarian cooperation, building civilian-military dialogue, providing essential services to civilian populations, and encouraging all actors to uphold and implement the Geneva Conventions.
International humanitarian law (IHL), sometimes known as the rules of war, governs armed conflicts primarily. IHL is a system of norms – either codified in treaties or accepted by custom – that impose restrictions on what parties to a conflict can do. IHL’s main goals are to reduce human suffering and protect civilians as well as former combatants who are no longer directly involved in conflicts, such as prisoners of war.
Serious crimes, such as war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity, fall within the umbrella of International Criminal Law (ICL). All governments have an obligation to prosecute persons who are reasonably suspected of criminal culpability for crimes under international law, including through universal jurisdiction, yet many states are unwilling or unable to do so. The International Criminal Court (ICC) was founded in 2002 to put an end to impunity for international crimes.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a court of last resort that is utilised when national judicial systems are incapable or unwilling to prosecute culprits. States Parties or the UN Security Council, which can also refer proceedings against non-State Parties, can refer cases to the ICC. On the basis of external evidence, the ICC Prosecutor may decide to begin an inquiry against a State Party. To hold perpetrators of crimes under international law accountable, some states have formed hybrid courts, which are local tribunals with international aspects.
UK government and its role as a peacemaker
Since 2010, the country has been governed by a Conservative-led government, with consecutive prime ministers serving as the Conservative Party’s leader. The Cabinet, which is made up of the Prime Minister and their most senior ministers, is the top decision-making body. Although the king has executive authority under the uncodified British Constitution, this authority is only exerted after receiving advice from the Privy Council. On the Privy Council, the monarch’s members and advisers include the Prime Minister, the House of Lords, the Leader of the Opposition, and the police and military high command.
Though certain Cabinet roles are sinecures to a greater or lesser extent, the cabinet exercises authority directly as leaders of government ministries in most circumstances. Because many of the government’s offices are located in Westminster or Whitehall, the government is sometimes referred to as “westminster” or “whitehall.” Members of the Scottish Government, Welsh Government, and Northern Ireland Executive, in particular, utilise these metonyms to distinguish their governments from HMG.
The United Kingdom government will contribute to UN efforts to avoid and manage conflicts, as well as to alleviate humanitarian suffering. Funding for the United Nations peacebuilding programmes will help avert conflicts and promote peace around the world. This money will go towards a variety of projects in over 40 nations, ranging from pressing for disarmament to encouraging women and young people to participate in political debate and peacemaking. Since 2010, a global uptick in warfare has resulted in a significant increase in human deaths. The funding by the United Kingdom will assist the United Nations in preventing and de-escalating conflict, which is critical to preserving lives.
The United Kingdom has identified three important priorities in this regard:
- To begin, the UN and the World Bank must strengthen their peace relationship. Their combined vision, knowledge, and global presence are critical to ensuring that multilateral development initiatives address conflict drivers.
- Supporting greater preventive diplomacy inside the UN, because we all know that effective conflict prevention and peacebuilding require political agreements.
- Early, better, and more effective preparation is required to ensure smoother transfers to and from peacekeeping missions in the country to other UN bodies.
The existing loopholes and possible solutions
These three pillars are reinforced by the United Kingdom’s commitment to a larger, values-driven protection strategy. In this context, the UN’s efforts to combat sexual exploitation and abuse, as well as to prevent sexual violence in conflict, are critical. Of course, maintaining peace is an important aspect of the wider UN reform agenda, which the UK also supports.
As we look to the future, we need to be more inventive in terms of expanding the donor base for peacebuilding and delivering more comprehensive solutions through the UN’s collaborations with a diverse variety of organisations.
The United Kingdom stands ready as a long-term political and financial contributor to peacebuilding. It stands ready to support the General Assembly of the United Nations (UNGA) resolution’s process so that, together, we may work successfully to maintain peace and establish a world free of the scourge of war for future generations.
Conclusion
The United Kingdom’s peacekeeping missions assist countries around the world in navigating the difficult transition from hostility to peace. It aids in the development of mutual understanding between neighbouring states and guides people through the hostile conditions they face. It is a fantastic project that will benefit people all across the world.
References
- https://reliefweb.int/report/mali/sahel-2021-communal-wars-broken-ceasefires-and-shifting-frontlines
- https://www.gov.uk/government/news/300-british-troops-deploy-to-mali-on-un-peacekeeping-mission
- https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-51699107
- https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/war-afghanistan
- https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/on-peacebuilding-and-sustaining-peace
- https://gsdrc.org/document-library/review-of-the-uk-government-approach-to-peacebuilding-2/
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