Home Code of Criminal Procedure All about criminal profiling

All about criminal profiling

February 13, 2024

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This article is written by Kaustubh Phalke. The article explores the complex field of criminal profiling and how it is used. As we dive into the article, we go through a brief introduction of the topic and then key terms related to criminal profiling that make the article more comprehensive, followed by its history, meaning, application, and purpose. Further, after discussing the methodology and procedure of criminal profiling, the article concludes with the criticism that sparked debates within the fields of criminology and criminal justice and possible solutions to improve criminal profiling.

Let’s plot a route through the intricacies of criminal profiling together and understand the practical application of criminal profiling and its importance as a part of the investigation.

It has been published by Rachit Garg.

Table of Contents

Introduction

The criminal justice system in India runs on the reformative theory of punishment, also known as rehabilitation theory. This focuses on the rehabilitation of the offender. The key principle that works under reformative theory is that criminal behaviour is influenced by several things, such as society and financial conditions, and hence the criminal justice system in India focuses on the reintegration of offenders into society. We tend to focus on the root cause of the crime and then rehabilitate the offender as a law-abiding citizen of the country. We believe that a crime must be abolished, not a criminal.

It becomes really difficult at times to understand the root cause of a crime, even when many criminologists have given several theories, such as social theory, psychological theory, etc., to pave the way for the cause of a crime.

It is generally observed that in almost every heinous offence, the offender follows a particular method, technique and pattern of committing a crime. The offender carries a psyche in his mind, which provokes him to commit such a crime. This psyche should be determined at the earliest to stop the offender from committing more such crimes and to rehabilitate him. Determining this psyche can prevent more such crimes than criminals.

Such psychopaths are commonly called ‘Serial killers’. These killers typically follow a characteristic and are certainly predictive.

The technique of criminal profiling here helps to determine this psyche.

Criminal profiling is the process of anticipating the nature of the offender by analysing his traits at the crime scene. It is used by law enforcement agencies to identify probable offenders and suspects. These are primarily used to link the cases that are committed by the same offender.

Criminal profiling is also known as offender profiling, crime scene profiling, psychological profiling, and personality profiling.

Now the technique of criminal profiling is known to everyone and many countries, like the UK, US, etc., have started using this technique to determine the psyche of a serial killer or even a terrorist.

Key terms for criminal profiling

There are many words in criminal profiling that cannot be easily understood by the layman. Understanding the meaning of these words makes the understanding of the process more comprehensible. The following are the keywords used in criminal profiling:

Homicidal triad

This was introduced by a famous psychiatrist, Mr. J. M. Macdonald. This is popularly known as the ‘Macdonald Triad’ or ‘sociopathy’. This is a common childhood trait found in criminals. This triad is a set of three factors, such as bedwetting, cruelty to animals and the urge to start a fire. The presence of any two is considered to be predictive. Usually, these are violent tendencies.

Linkage analysis

A procedure of linking the evidence and the information gathered from the crime scene that is likely to have been committed by a particular individual in order to make him a suspect because of the behavioural similarity evident across the crimes.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely used and researched assessment analysis tool used by psychologists to diagnose mental health disorders.

Modus operandi

It refers to a particular way of working. In the context of this article, modus operandi means a specific manner in which the criminal commits the crime.

Offender homology

A theory that believes that offenders of a specific type of crime have certain characteristics in common. This theory suggests that there will be a similarity between different offenders who commit similar crimes.

Signature behaviour

Signature behaviours refer to acts that are not necessarily required for the commission of offence. This is a trait that gives us foresight into an individual’s underlying values. In this context, it is a requirement for the emotional fulfilment of the offender but not for the commission of a crime. For example, anger issues, any special pattern on crime scenes, etc.

Victimology

It is a scientific study of the connection between the victim and the offender. It can be any common connection between all the victims.

History of criminal profiling

Criminal profiling was first used in the case of Jack the Ripper. The story of Jack dates back to 1888. He was a serial killer of the Whitechapel district of London who not only used to snuff out life with a knife, but he also mutilated and disembowelled women, removing organs such as the kidneys and uterus, and his crimes seemed to portray an abhorrence for the entire female gender. The adroitness and skills with which the killer used to mutilate the bodies of the victims foreshadowed the killer’s knowledge about anatomy and surgery. Jack was sagacious about the evidence as well.

The then-police surgeon, Thomas Bond, was given the case and was asked to submit his conjectures about the killer. He later examined the cases of previous victims through post-mortem reports and the clues available thereon.

He created a killer’s profile by observing his signature personality traits and modus operandi. The profile summarised that the killer must be a strong man with a good physique. He was a dauntless person who is believed to be a patient of periodic attacks of erotica and homicidal mania. Additionally, Bond could also conclude that the murderer may be suffering from an abnormal sexual condition similar to Satyriasis.

The process of criminal profiling became more familiar to the investigators after psychologists and psychiatrists took an interest in examining the psyches of criminal minds and more details were published.

What is criminal profiling

Criminal profiling is a branch of forensics and the art of hypothesising an offender’s traits from circumstantial pieces of evidence available and clues ascertained from the investigation. According to Douglas and Olshaker (1995), “Criminal profiling is the development of an investigation by means of obtainable information regarding an offence and crime scene to compile a psychosomatic representation of the known architect of the crime.” (Douglas and Olshaker, 1995, quoted in Muller, 2000:235).

Criminal profiling is based on two basic assumptions: behavioral consistency and homology. Behavioral consistency refers to the linking of the crime with a suspect based on past incidents, and homology means a belief that similar crimes are committed by similar criminals. The primary purpose of criminal profiling is to identify the perpetrators of a crime. For example, the principles of psychology can be applied to the information gathered from the crime scene and the victim to ascertain the background of the offender, such as their social life, nature of the job, gender, etc., and then to identify the suspects.

Linkage analysis is a way to link the evidence obtained from the crime scene to an individual by way of principles of psychology; if the links get connected, then the individual is made a suspect. This pattern of links suggests the modus operandi and signature. Modus operandi is subject to change but the signature is believed to be an unchanging trait of an individual.

For example, the “homicidal triad” of bedwetting, cruelty to animals and the urge to start a fire are some common childhood traits found in criminals, to be specific, murderers.

Criminal profiling is a new concept, also called psychological profiling, criminal personality profiling, offender profiling, or investigative psychology. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) calls it “criminal investigative analysis.” A homicidal triad is believed to be a desire to show dominance over others by inflicting pain on them.

Significant features of criminal profiling

Criminal profiling is a process used by investigators for a crucial purpose. Let’s understand the significant features of criminal profiling:

Analysis of the crime scene

The investigators analyse the crime scene and gather all the relevant information regarding the characteristics of the crime, victim, and offender. This is done to analyse the modus operandi of the suspect, its signature traits and to predict his future crime.

Analysis of behaviour

The investigators analyse the behaviour of the offender to ascertain the intention, motive and mental state at the time of the commission of the crime. This helps to understand the thought process of a criminal and why he has committed the crime. This indeed helps us to determine the type of behaviour or pattern of crime that the offender is using.

Analysis of the victim

A thorough analysis of the victim is done to understand the preferences of the criminal. This analysis includes factors like age, gender, caste, relationship with the offender, etc. This gives an insight into the motive of the criminal.

Geographical profiling

This refers to the analysis of the location of the crime scene, where the victim resides. This gives a clue as to where the offender might reside. This produces a probable map of the offender’s home base. This map can help in identifying the threats involved in catching the offender. After getting the location and foresight of the home base of the offender, investigating agencies can search for databases, criminal records, addresses of suspects, selection of intensive patrol areas, etc.

Analysis of time

This is done to identify the pattern or trend of the crime and the criminal. Such as specific days of the week or occasions, etc. As per the author’s analysis, it is generally observed that criminals, especially serial killers, commit crimes after some abnormal event in their lives. An analysis of that time period may help the investigators predict the future target of the killer.

Analysis of signature behaviour

The investigators try to analyse the modus operandi and signature behaviour to get insights into the offender’s personality. For example, mutilation of the body after killing, leaving any object or message on the crime scene, traces of necrophilia, etc.

Psychological profiling

This is part of criminal profiling, which is done to identify the psyche of the offender and to understand the personality of the offender better. Psychologists are called during the police investigation to understand and analyse the psyche of the offender at the crime scene. There is a consistency between the way offenders act and who they are. Generally, three areas are focused on generating the profile of the offender, which are individual differentiation, behavioral consistency, and inferences about offender characteristics.

Criminal investigative experience

The investigators use their experience and knowledge together to link the available information with the individual and then identify a suspect. For example, investigators study previous case studies made by senior investigators using their experience to link the traits of the criminal with those of another similar criminal.

Dynamic analysis

Criminal profiling is a dynamic process, i.e., the analysis and the result change when the investigators get new information or a new clue about the crime scene, offender and victim. For example, if the investigator finds a new clue or leads about the offender or at the crime scene, then the inferences drawn from the new profile may differ from the previous one.

Integrating with law enforcement agencies

The profilers integrate with law enforcement agencies to help them in investigations. The analysis of this information helps to approach the investigation more effectively. Integration with law enforcement agencies makes the process of investigation easier. It gives direction to law enforcement agencies to better investigate the offender.

Purpose of criminal profiling

Criminal profiling is very helpful in identifying offenders, especially in crimes like hostage takers, rapists, kidnappers, murderers, arsonists and the identification of senders of threats. It includes a blend of psychology and investigative experience to speculate on the traits of the offender. Criminal profiling is a technique of identifying patterns and then drawing inferences on the motive, modus operandi and signature traits; these recurring patterns make the offender predictable. All these things are linked together to make a criminal profile and then to establish a probable chain of incidents that might have happened during the commission of a crime and identify the suspects. Criminal profiling helps to predict the next step of the offender and helps the investigators understand where to intervene.

The criminal profilers may also testify as expert witnesses in court because of their expertise in the knowledge of criminal behaviour, investigating experience, etc.

Criminal profiling helps in making the strategy to catch an offender and to speculate on the risks involved in catching him. This helps to maintain public security by identifying the traits of the offender and taking preventive measures thereon.

To summarise :

Criminal profiling helps assist the criminal justice system in fighting against crime.
This helps in making a successful strategy to catch a criminal and gives an insight into the criminal’s psyche and decision-making.
This gives law enforcement agencies a particular direction to make the investigation faster and more effective.
This gives clarity on all the problems and helps in using the resources in the best way possible.
Criminal profiling may even lead to the identification of the offender.
This gives clarity on the motive of the offender.
When conventional methods of investigation go in vain, criminal profiling comes into play and makes the investigation process smoother.

Application of criminal profiling

Criminal profiling is the most used technique in the criminal justice system, especially in India. Mostly, it is used in the assessment of the offenders of heinous crimes like rape, murder, sexual homicides, etc. Such crime creates a great sense of fear in society at large and is therefore given more attention. Resulting in which has become a greater obligation for law enforcement agencies to arrest criminals as soon as possible. Secondly, such cases are difficult to solve and take more time to get solved as compared to other crimes.

Earlier, profiling was done only in the case of heinous offences or where the crimes were done in a pattern. Habitual offenders are so skilled in committing crimes that they leave no clue behind to reach them; in such cases, criminal profiling becomes a helpful technique to assess the behaviour of the criminal and other things such as modus operandi and signature.

Criminal profiling is mostly applicable in the following cases:

Sex-related assaults and homicides.
Unique homicides, such as those involving torture, mutilation, evisceration, and ritualistic violence.
Assassination.
Child molestation and abduction.
Fire setting, arson and bombing.
Extortion.

Approach to criminal profiling

The approach to criminal profiling can be understood as the approach used by the investigators to generate the profile of offenders. Several approaches to criminal profiling help in predicting the nature of the offender. The following are approaches to criminal profiling:

The typological approach

It refers to the analysis of the clues and evidence available at the crime scene. It is used to draw a full profile of the criminal. This is based on the technique developed by the FBI’s behavioural science unit, which has now evolved into a profiling and behavioural assessment unit.

Geographical profiling

This approach involves connecting the anecdotes of information gathered from the crime scene to pinpoint the location of the offender’s current residence. Through this, investigators generate a probability map to ascertain the most likely place of the offender’s residence. This probability map is then used to draw references such as where the offender lives, select suspects, etc. For example, every offender leaves certain clues or evidence behind him, like clothes, shoes, etc.; these are analysed, and the offender’s location is predicted based on this geographical profiling.

Investigative psychology

This involves identifying if a single criminal committed the crime or if more than one individual was involved. It is used to develop strategies to solve a case. It also aids in revealing tactics and signatures to assist investigators in looking for associated activities. This helps in determining the motives of offenders and sheds light on the intentions of criminals. It is also used to assess the psychological state of the offender and determine how dangerous they are.

Clinical approach

This is used to assess the kind of mental health disorder that the offender is suffering from. Mental health disorders such as dementia, schizophrenia, etc. This helps to assess whether the offender has committed that crime due to that ailment or is making a false claim of being mentally unfit. This approach helps to identify the psyche of the criminal at the time of the commission of the offence, and the case is approached from a psychological point of view.

Serial crime profiling

This is used to identify the patterns and signature behaviour of the criminal. This approach is used in cases where multiple crimes have been committed by a single individual or a group of criminals.

Psychological autopsy

This is done after the death of the victim. Psychological autopsy helps to ascertain the mental state of the victim, marks of hesitation, his background, etc. This is generally used in the case of suicides or unnatural, suspicious deaths.

Methods of criminal profiling

The methods of criminal profiling are used to create a profile of the offender that may include the age, sex, ethnic and economic background, possible professions, personality traits, physical characteristics, etc. During the analysis, most inferences are drawn from the choices he made after and before the commission of a crime. All these inferences based on physical evidence and clues available at the crime scene are clubbed together and compared with already-known mental abnormalities to make a profile of the perpetrators.

This profile is an assessment based on some reasoning. There are two types of reasoning, which are discussed below:

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning includes an analysis of all the other criminals of a single type, e.g., serial killers. This reasoning assumes that common characteristics are found in similar types of criminals.

This reasoning is mostly used by the FBI, psychologists and criminologists. Inductive reasoning includes broad generalisation and statistical reasoning. This is an assessment of the offenders of a similar crime based on their correlation, experiential, and statistical inferences. This can be best understood as an average of the offenders and their characteristics. Since it is a product of such comparative analysis and is an educated generalisation, it is hence called “inductive reasoning.” It can be considered a common syndrome in offenders of a similar type. The results of this reasoning are mostly accurate.

Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning includes an analysis of the physical evidence found at the crime scene and then drawing inferences from the characteristics of the offender. This is primarily used by the investigating officer of the police. It involves an analysis of the pattern of crime and behaviour shown by the offender at the scene of the crime. It is known as deductive reasoning, as the characteristics are deduced from the physical evidence available at the crime scene.

Both the crime scene evidence and the victim are analysed to draw the profile of the most probable individual to commit the crime. This process is based on forensics and the behaviour of the offender.

This reasoning can be best termed as ‘behaviour evidence analysis’ since it is based on the deductions from the behaviour of the offender and the evidence available at the crime scene.

Certain assumptions are made during deductive reasoning. The assumptions which are made during deductive reasoning are as follows:

Every act has some motive behind it.
Every offence should be investigated as having its own uniqueness in terms of behaviour and pattern.
Different offenders show similar behaviours for different reasons.
Similar to human nature and behaviour, every case is unique in its own way.
The modus operandi of a criminal may change with the passage of time and over the commission of multiple offences.
An offender can have a different motive for a single offence or multiple offences.

Though deductive reasoning is more time-consuming, it is more useful as an investigative guide. This is most reliable in terms of establishing the motive and signature of the probable offender.

Phases of criminal profiling

The phases of criminal profiling are the assessment of the various factors that are necessary for the generation of a profile. These phases are the foundation pillars to predict the nature of the offender. The following are the phases of criminal profiling:

Phase – 1: Antecedent

This is the first phase of criminal profiling in which the analyst and investigator try to read the mind of the offender. The purpose is to assess the plan the offender had before the commission of a crime to ascertain the motive behind the crime. This helps to know what triggered the offender to commit the crime.

Phase – 2: Method and manner

The analyst may predict the method and manner in which the crime was committed, for example, what could have been the weapon of crime, i.e., a knife or a gun, etc., or the manner of commission of a crime such as stabbing, strangulation, etc. The reason behind selecting the victim may also be predicted.

Phase – 3: Body Disposal

This is the third phase of criminal profiling. This includes analysing the method by which the disposal of the body was done. This gives foresight into the psyche of the offender. For example, the disposal of the body was done in a single place or it was mutilated.

Phase – 4: Post-offensive behaviour

This includes analysing the behaviour of the offender after the commission of the crime. Things such as the cooperative behaviour of the suspect in the investigation give an insight into the behaviour of the offender. For example, interaction with media, contacting investigators and staying in contact with the investigating officer, etc.

Stages of criminal profiling

Nowadays, criminal profiling is not the only technique left; there are recent developments as well. Crime scene analysis and investigative psychology are two kinds of criminal profiling that have recently developed, though similar methods are used in both kinds of criminal profiling. Crime scene analysis is most popularly used by the behavioural science unit of the FBI, especially in cases of heinous offences such as murder, rape, child molestation, etc. Certain criteria is set by the FBI for the analysis of cases and the generation of profiles that are required by law enforcement agencies. The criteria set by the FBI is that the case needs to be of a heinous nature, the offender should be unknown and the clues and leads available should be exhausted.

Stages involved in FBI profiles

Data assimilation stage

The first step is to gather information from the crime scene and every other place that is related to the crime, victim or offender. All the necessary documentary evidence is to be assimilated together. These documents include the medical report showing the cause of death made by the pathologist, photographs and videos captured at the crime scene, witness statements, the final report of the investigation and many more. This information helps a lot to gain insight into the offender’s personality.

Crime scene classification

The profiler has divided the crime scene into two categories: organised crime scenes and disorganised crime scenes.

Let’s discuss them further:

Organised crime scene

At such a crime scene, the crime is committed with good planning and strategy, i.e., leaving no leads behind. Some basic characteristics of such crime scenes are proper disposal of the body, removal of a weapon of offence from the crime scene, execution through proper strategy and planning, targeted victim, use of restraints, etc.

Such crime scenes suggest that the offender has a good IQ and is skilled. Such offenders are generally obsessed with media coverage.

Disorganised crime scene

Such crime scenes look chaotic when observed. For example, improper disposal of the body, leaving clues behind, etc. Such a crime scene shows that the offender must have been anxious while committing the crime and is unskilled. The victim is usually killed in an uncontrolled manner. It is observed that the disorganised criminals do not plan their weapons; they are generally acquired at the crime scene. Most probably, he lives near the crime scene and does not maintain his personal hygiene.

Crime scene reconstruction

In crime scene reconstruction, the crime scene is reconstructed by having one person play the role of the offender and another person play the victim. The crime scene may look chaotic and complex at first sight; hence, this reconstruction gives a clear idea about the weapon of offence, angle of hit, etc.

The information collected at the data assimilation stage is used for the reconstruction of the crime scene. This reconstruction may help in connecting the case in hand with other similar cases, which can be used for further investigation.

Profile generation

Profile generation is the process of drawing inferences about the behaviour and nature of the offender. This hypothesis may include demographic analysis, lifestyle, behavioural habits and personality dynamics. In the FBI, the criminal profile has several functions, such as linking the crime with the suspect and other possible offenders.

Criminal profiling in India

Criminal profiling is a complex process that requires the assessment of every clue found on the crime scene. Certain procedures are to be followed to make an effective and accurate profile of the offender. The following are the procedures followed by the investigators to prepare a profile of the offender:

Profiling inputs

The process begins with the criminal profile generation of the offender. It is better to have comprehensive case material for an effective criminal profile. Basically, this is the collection of all the evidence from the crime scene, for example, clothes, fingerprints, hairs, etc., or any inference drawn from the crime scene, for example, photographs, notes, videos, etc.

For example, in homicidal cases, information such as a synopsis of the crime, details about the crime scene, geographical profiling, etc. All this information makes the case more comprehensive and makes it easier to generate a criminal profile.

All the details about the criminal and victim are gathered. These details include nature, job, sex, fears, physical condition, financial condition, criminal history, family conditions, conduct in society, etc.

Forensic information about the crime is also crucial for criminal profiling. This information includes an autopsy report with Toxicology/ Serology results, autopsy photographs, and photographs of the cleansed wounds. These reports shall necessarily contain the medical examiner’s remarks regarding the estimated time and cause of death, type of weapon, and suspected sequence of delivery of wounds.

Everything found at the crime scene is of the utmost importance, such as the crime scene sketch, the position of the body, and the spot map.

Decision process models

All the pieces of information assimilated in the first step are arranged together to make a comprehensive profile of the offender. This information is arranged in such an order as to identify the pattern of the crime. Identifying the pattern of crime gives an insight into the nature of the offender.

By arranging the information, the investigator may get foresight on whether the crime was part of a series of crimes, a common factor in crimes, similarity in victims or offenders, etc.

Crime assessment

In this step, the reconstruction of the sequence of events is done to better understand the chronology of the events that happened at the time of the crime. Based on the arrangements made in the second step, i.e., understanding the chronology of the events, it helps to infer the specific characteristics to be generated for the criminal profile.

The assessment is about the classification of crime, the pattern of selection of victims, modus operandi, etc.

To summarise, the pieces of evidence are rearranged, the crime scene is reconstructed, and an assessment is done regarding the above-mentioned factors to generate a profile.

Criminal profile

Finally, the criminal profile is now made based on the evidence, the chronology of events, and the assessment of crime. This criminal profile deals with what kind of person the offender is, probable offender, pattern of crime, selection of victim, etc.

Once the criminal profile is completed, the investigators now make a strategy for further investigation. This profile gives them a direction to investigate to make the process faster and easier.

The criminal profile includes the behaviour of the offender, physical traits, habits, beliefs and values, thought process, pattern of crime, criminal history and other such important things.

It may also include investigative recommendations, i.e., the history of the offender, physical characteristics, etc.

This gives an insight into the crime and the criminal, which makes it easier for the investigators to identify the offender based on their criminal profile.

The interview of suspects is done based on this criminal profile.

Investigation

After the completion of the criminal profile, a written report is submitted to the law-enforcing agency that has requested this criminal profile. This criminal profile adds a new crucial piece of information to the ongoing investigation, which gives it a direction to investigate. The investigative recommendations added to the criminal profile are used to interview the suspects and identify the offender.

This criminal profile is reassessed if no information can be concluded or if there is some addition to the information regarding the offender.

The apprehension

When a suspect is identified, the next step is to interview the suspect.

Once the suspect is confirmed, the next step is to arrest the suspect. To make this arrest, a warrant is obtained from the magistrate having jurisdiction in a non-cognizable case.

Types of offenders for criminal profiling

The offender can be classified into two categories based on their modus operandi and pattern of committing crime. The following are two categories:

Organised criminal

Such criminals live an organised life, i.e., a well-planned life and kill people after some sort of special or abnormal life event. They execute everything with a plan. Similarly, their crime is planned and organised i.e., removing weapons of offence from the crime scene, wiping off fingerprints, misleading the evidence, tampering evidence, etc. It is generally observed that the IQ of such offenders is high and they are employed.

Disorganised criminal

These criminals are the least organised with regard to the execution of crime. They generally leave evidence and clues behind them at the crime scene. For example, leaving footprints and fingerprints at crime scenes, unplanned weapons acquired from the crime scene, leaving blood stains at the crime scene, etc. Such criminals commit offences in the heat of the moment and are generally unemployed. These kinds of offenders are less social and have a lower IQ.

Criminal profiling guidelines for investigators

A profiler examines each and every piece of evidence and clue obtained from the crime scene in order to make an effective profile. This evidence may include a dying declaration, a post-mortem report, a spot map, the pattern of crime, etc. The investigators are guided to stay unbiased while making the profile, which can help in identifying the actual offender. The profile is made on the basis of the statements of the victim, information gathered from the crime scene, and a behavioural analysis of the offender. The behaviour of the offender before the commission of the offence and after the commission of the offence gives an insight into the nature of the offender and its possible next target to prevent any further crime. This reveals the psychodynamic process of the criminal.

Guidelines given to the investigators regarding the information to be necessarily gathered from the crime scene.

Entire crime scene photographs.
All the social data about the victim and the criminal.
Post-mortem report and medical examiner’s remarks on the victim and anything related to the offender.
Travel details of the victim and the offender.
A thorough investigation of the crime.

Guidelines given to the investigators regarding the profile.

Analysis of criminal acts.
Analysis of the crime scene.
Examination of the victim.
Examination of eyewitnesses, if any, other witnesses.
Analysis of the post-mortem report.
Making a profile with unknown subject traits.

Criminal profiling of serial killers in India

India has witnessed several serial killers in its criminal history. Amongst them were certain killers who crossed every limit of brutality. Following are some serial killer and their modus operandi who were known for committing heinous offences:

Satish Kumar (Haryana)

Satish Kumar was born in 1973. Satish was a habitual paedophile and serial killer from Bahadurgarh, Haryana. He was active from 1995-1998. He admitted his act of kidnapping, attempting to rape fourteen girls and murdering ten. He followed a pattern of crime i.e., his selection of victims was girls of five to nine years of age. Satish was popularly known as the “Bahadurgarh baby killer.” The police were unable to apprehend the criminal for a long period of time, which ultimately led to riots and protests against the police. Following these protests, police arrested three men in succession, but murders still continued. Satish was finally arrested in 1998 at the Haryana-Delhi border. His last victim led the police to apprehend and arrest him. He was then convicted of twelve sexual assaults and ten murders. Currently, he is serving a life sentence.

Mohan Kumar Vivekanand (Mangalore)

Mohan was a teacher turned dreaded serial killer in India. He was popularly known as the “cyanide mohan.” As per the reliable sources of law enforcement agencies, Mohan was accompanied by a goldsmith who later taught him about the poison cyanide. He was released from his first conviction due to a lack of evidence. Then he later married two women and had two children with each of them. When asked about his family, they said he was a kind man, a loving spouse, and a good father.

Later on, he started researching the poison and purchased it from a chemical store. He identified himself as a goldsmith to make the purchase easier.

His modus operandi was to search for unmarried women from Kerala and Karnataka by promising them fancy jobs and marriage. He then took these women to lodges near a bus stand and sexually assaulted them. He made them take these cyanide pills by convincing them to take contraceptive pills near the bus stop. After the death of the victim, he used her phone to call the next victim and looted everything that was in her possession. He continued this until there were twenty more such victims.

The investigation started with a cyber investigation used to trace the location from which the calls were made to the victim. On being traced, the location was found to be Dharalakatte, some point in the village. The police searched the area and found the phone to be in the possession of Dhanush, who said that the phone was given to him by Mohan, his uncle.

The police finally caught him in 2009, when he was accused of killing at least 20 women. Mohan was convicted and is life imprisoned for 15 murder cases. Currently, he is serving life imprisonment at the Hindalga Central Prison in Belgavi.

Sadashiv Sahu

“Killing someone is peaceful,” as said by Sadashiv Sahu. He was a cloth merchant who lived in Fursatganj, Uttar Pradesh. He was fond of reading religious books, but his dark deeds were revealed in front of everyone when police arrested him in a case in 2004.

As per Sadashiv, an invisible power told him to commit murder, and he started doing the same. During police interrogation, Sadashiv Sahu admitted the same and stated that after killing someone, when he went back home, he felt a sense of comfort and peace. He created havoc by doing this from 2000-2004. He admitted that Sadashiv made middle-aged friends. His modus operandi was to seduce the person, and once the person got seduced, he shot him/her dead with his pistol at close range to reduce any chances of escape.

Sadashiv was finally arrested in 2004 and was sent to jail when he admitted his offence in writing.

Criminal profiling and law

Criminal profiling is a crucial part of an investigation, but the information generated in criminal profiling may not always be admissible as evidence in court. Investigators may be called as expert witnesses under Section 45 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, which states that the opinion of experts can be sought by the court if the question is of foreign law, science, art, identity, handwriting or finger impressions, as these opinions are relevant under this provision. These opinions work on the principle of necessity, i.e., such opinions are asked when the question is on a subject matter that is beyond common experience or knowledge or where expertise is necessary to answer the question in dispute. The admissibility of such opinions is at the discretion of the court.

During the generation of profiles, the profilers should respect the rights of individuals and should not violate the laws governing their privacy. The investigators should remain unbiased while generating profiles.

The confessions obtained for the purpose of profiling should be free from any undue pressure or coercion to avoid any prejudice with regard to the suspects in the crime.

The investigators should also abide by international laws while making a criminal profile of the offender.

The criminal profile should be scrutinised on the point of law. It should respect the rights of individuals and uphold the rule of law.

Criminal profiling in other countries

Criminal profiling is a widely accepted technique in various countries. Each country uses criminal profiling in its own cultural and legal aspects. Following are the techniques used by various countries.

Bottom-up approach

This is mostly followed in the UK. This approach is primarily based on psychological theories and methodologies. This is primarily based on the existing computer databases of the offender. According to this theory, no assumptions are made about the offender, and the behaviour of the offender is observed before the commission of the crime and post-commission of the crime. The bottom-up approach is considered a more reliable approach since no previous assumptions are made about the offender. The information gathered from the crime scene and other available clues are arranged together to draw an inference about the offender’s behaviour.

Two aspects of this technique

Interpersonal consistency

The reason behind the selection of victim and crime is analysed and it is based on the interpersonal relation between the victim and the offender before the crime was committed. This analysis is done to clarify the reason for the crime.

Special consistency

This is based on geographical profiling i.e., where the crime is committed. This is done to speculate on further crime of the offender and to prevent it as well. This gives a foresight as to why the execution of the crime took place at that particular place. This can be helpful in apprehending the offender.

Top-down approach

This was developed by Richard Gregory in 1970, also known as the American approach. This technique is most prevalent in the US. It begins with an analysis of the crime scene and the evidence found at the crime scene. This technique was developed after several interviews with the offenders of crimes like sexually-oriented murders. Using this information and connecting the anecdotes, the profiler generates the profile of the offender from ‘the top down’.

The offender is classified in the category of organised and disorganised criminals.

This technique is widely used by the FBI, but in spite of this, it is not very reliable. The technique is based on the interviews with the criminals. These criminals are very manipulative with their statements. Generally, this technique is used in high profile cases.

However, this technique is also criticised because it originated from research on the most dangerous criminal, Ted Bundy.

This approach is used for heinous offences such as murder, rape, etc.

Controversies on criminal profiling

Criminal profiling is the most used and popular technique to catch an offender, but it still gets surrounded by lots of criticism from law enforcement agencies. Critics believe that the profiling relies on subjective inferences rather than concrete evidence. This raises a question about the accuracy and effectiveness of the profile.

Profilers are blamed for introducing their bias to the profile, irrespective of the factor whether it was unintentional or not. The reason is that profiles are based on subjective inference and not on strong evidence. The criminal profile is merely a personal inference based on the information gathered from the crime scene and the evidence available after the investigation.

Since criminal profiling is merely a subjective inference of the behaviour of the offender, it may lead to the misidentification of suspects and may be inaccurate.

Criminal profiling is majorly based on opinions, which may vary according to the profilers, i.e., the results of the profiling of the same offender in the same case may be different for different profilers. This can lead to the misidentification of suspects and patterns followed by the offender. Over-reliance on such profiles may lead to the overlooking of crucial evidence. The investigative suggestion in the criminal profiling for the investigators may be at times coercive and against the rights of the individual. The information for criminal profiling is majorly gathered from the personal things of the offender and the victim, which may lead to a violation of the rights of the offender.

Despite being surrounded by controversies, criminal profiling is mostly used by investigators to identify suspects.

The criticisms mentioned above can be removed by proper training and research on criminal profiling, which will ultimately improve the accuracy and methodological errors.

Conclusion

Criminal profiling has attained good popularity amongst investigators, law students, and psychology students as well. Criminal profiling is the most important tool used to identify probable suspects and offenders. It is a comprehensive and detailed report about the behaviour of the offender based on the evidence obtained from the crime scene and linking them together. It is an effective tool to make the investigation effective and to give it a good direction. It helps in identifying the behaviour of the criminal, his modus operandi, and his pattern of crime. It is based on an analysis of the background of the criminal and the victim. The criminal profilers, after assessing various factors, draw inferences on the motive of the crime and the nature of the offender.

In contrast to its popularity amongst people, a lot of development is still required regarding the methodology of the profile, its accuracy and its application. Proper guidelines should be issued and standards should be set to improve the accuracy of the profile generation of the offenders. It is a multidisciplinary forensic practice. It requires knowledge of applied criminology, medico-legal death investigation, and psychology.

Certain rules should be followed while making an effective profile, such as:

Analysis of crime
Assessment of information from all the important places, such as the crime scene, the location around the crime scene, etc.
Arranging the information.
Making a written report.

At last, we should keep in mind that criminal profiling is used to draw inferences on the probable offender and suspect rather than the specific offender of the crime.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Who is the father of criminal profiling?

Hans Gustav Adolf Gross, who was an Austrian criminal jurist and criminologist, is known as the father of criminal profiling.

What are the four approaches to criminal profiling?

Many types of criminal profiling help predict the nature of the offender. The following are approaches to criminal profiling:

Crime scene profiling

Geographical profiling

This approach involves connecting the anecdotes of information gathered from the crime scene to pinpoint the location of the offender’s current residence. Through this, investigators generate a probability map to ascertain the most likely place of the offender’s residence. This probability map is then used to draw references such as where the offender lives, select suspects, etc. For example, every offender leaves certain clues or evidence behind him, like clothes, shoes, etc., these are analysed and the offender’s location is predicted based on this geographical profiling.

Investigative profiling

This involves identifying if a single criminal committed the crime or if more than one individual was involved. It is used to develop strategies to solve a case. It also aids in revealing tactics and signatures to assist investigators in looking for similar associated activities. This also helps in determining the motives of offenders and sheds light on the intentions of criminals. It is also used to assess the psychological state of the offender and determine how dangerous they are.

Clinical approach

Serial crime profiling

This is used to identify the patterns and signature behaviour of the criminal. This approach is used in cases where multiple crimes have been committed by a single individual or a group of criminals.

Psychological autopsy

What is Bottom-Up profiling?

Bottom-Up approach

This is prevalent in the UK. This approach is majorly based on psychological theories and methodologies. This is majorly based on the existing computer databases of the offender. According to this theory, no assumptions are made about the offender and the behaviour of the offender is observed before the commission of the crime and post-commission of the crime. The bottom-up approach is considered a more reliable approach since no previous assumptions are made about the offender. The information gathered from the crime scene and other available clues are arranged together to draw an inference about the offender’s behaviour.

Two aspects of this technique

Interpersonal consistency

The reason behind the selection of victim and crime is analysed and it is based on their interpersonal relationship between the victim and the offender before the crime was committed. This analysis is done to clarify the reason for the crime.

Special consistency

This is based on geographical profiling, i.e., where the crime is committed. This is done to speculate on the further crime of the offender and to prevent it as well. This gives foresight as to why the execution of the crime took place at that particular place. This can be helpful in apprehending the offender.

What is an atavistic approach?

This approach was introduced by Lombroso in 1870, which suggests that some people are born with criminal traits in their personalities. The atavistic approach was used before the introduction of criminal profiling. It is a historical approach that was used to analyse the behaviour of criminals. This was majorly based on biological factors such as a sloping brow, a pronounced jaw, high cheekbones, large ears, etc. It is said that around 4000 criminals and the skulls of 400 dead criminals were analysed to create the database for the same.

Explain the types of offenders on the basis of their modus operandi.

The offender can be classified into two categories based on their modus operandi and pattern of committing crime. The following are two categories:

Organised criminal

Such criminals live an organised life, i.e., a well-planned life and kill people after some sort of abnormal or special life event. They execute everything with a plan. Similarly, their crime is planned and organised, i.e., removing weapons of offence from the crime scene, wiping off fingerprints, etc. It is generally observed that the IQ of such offenders is high and they are employed.

Disorganised criminal

These criminals are the least organised with regard to the execution of the crime. They generally leave evidence and clues behind them at the crime scene. Such criminals commit offences in the heat of the moment and are generally unemployed. These kinds of offenders are less social and have a lower IQ.

References

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